Renal
Nephrolithiasis Risk Factors
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Nephrolithiasis Risk Factors
, Ureterolithiasis Risk Factors, Recurrent Kidney Stone Risk Factors
See Also
Nephrolithiasis
Medication Causes of Nephrolithiasis
Risk Factors
Gene
ral
Increases with advancing age up to 65 years
Male gender (men account for 66% of cases)
Geographic location (hot, arid climates)
Southeastern United States ("stone belt")
Mediterranean countries
Middle Eastern countries
Northern Australia
Risk Factors
Anatomic Abnormalities
Horseshoe
Kidney
Medulla
ry Sponge
Kidney
Ureteral Stricture
Ureterocele
Vesicoureteral reflux
Ureteropelvic junction obstruction
Risk Factors
Inherited Conditions
Polycystic Kidney Disease
Renal Tubular Acidosis
Type I
Cystinuria
Hypocitraturia
Hypercalciuria
Prmary hyperoxaluria
Lesch-Nyhan Syndrome
2,8-dihydroxyadenine
Cystic Fibrosis
Xanthinuria
Risk Factors
Gastrointestinal Disorders
Inflammatory Bowel Disease
(
Crohns Disease
,
Ulcerative Colitis
)
Higher risk of
Calcium Oxalate Stone
s
Urinary diversion (enteric hyperoxaluria)
Intestinal resection
Jejunoileal Bypass
(
Bariatric Surgery
)
Intestinal malabsorption
Risk Factors
Miscellaneous
Hypertension
Non-
Alcohol
ic
Fatty Liver
Disease
Gouty Arthritis
Nephrocalcinosis
Hyperparathyroidism
Higher risk of
Calcium Oxalate Stone
s
Sarcoidosis
Risk Factors
Medications
See
Medication Causes of Nephrolithiasis
Risk Factors
Dietary and Hydration Factors
Low
Urine Volume
Inadequate access to hydration or restrooms
Athlete
Heat exposure
Bowel
Disease
Bowel
Surgery (e.g. Ileostomy)
Infammatory bowel disease (e.g.
Crohn's Disease
)
Chronic Diarrhea
Peptic Ulcer Disease
Other dietary factors
Animal protein intake (see aciduria below)
Purine Containing Food
s and other protein intake
High
Oxalate Containing Food
s (hyperoxaluria)
Excessive
Sodium
intake (
Hypercalciuria
risk)
Excessive carbohydrate intake
Hypercalciuria
(70% of stone formers)
Type 1: Increased PTH (resorptive
Hypercalciuria
)
Hyperparathyroidism
Sarcoidosis
Type 2: Increased Calcium absorption from gut
Type 3: Increased Urinary Phosphorus loss
Type 4: Increased Urinary Calcium loss
Hyperoxaluria
Citrate deficiency (not oxalate metabolism problem)
Hypocitraturia (
Distal Renal Tubular Acidosis
)
Hyperuricosuria
Acidosis and aciduria (results in loss of citrate)
Acetazolamide
(
Diamox
)
Renal Tubular Acidosis
Protein loading (especially with animal protein)
Bowel
disease (see above)
Risk Factor
Other risks for recurrent stone
Early onset
Urolithiasis
(child or teen onset)
Family History
of stone formation
Calcium Phosphate Stone
s
Infection associated stones (
Struvite Stone
s, carbonate apatite stones)
Uric Acid
stones
References
Mobley (Feb 1999) Hospital Medicine, p. 21-38
Fontenelle (2019) Am Fam Physician 99(8): 490-6 [PubMed]
Frassetto (2011) Am Fam Physician 84(11): 1234-42 [PubMed]
Goldfarb (1999) Am Fam Physician 60(8): 2269-76 [PubMed]
Houshiar (1996) Postgrad Med 100(4): 131-8 [PubMed]
Pietrow (2006) Am fam Physician 74(1): 86-94 [PubMed]
Preminger (2007) J Urol 178(6): 2418-34 [PubMed]
Skolarikos (2015) Eur Urol 67(4): 750-63 [PubMed]
Trivedi (1996) Postgrad Med, 100(6): 63-78 [PubMed]
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